Howard Gardner addresses the issue of creativity in his book Creating Minds. The title suggest that not only is he looking at people with creative minds but at how to construct a mind that is creative. By surveying the lives of seven outstanding creative geniuses in various domains, Gardner found certain commonalties between these individuals. These aspects of their lives may construct a type of model which leads to creativity. However, to test this model further I have chosen to study the life and work of Marie Curie. I believe this to be an appropriate choice because not only did she make significant scientific discoveries, but she also lived within the time frame which Gardner selected the other seven. In keeping with Gardner's organizational scheme, the childhood of Madame Curie will first be examined. Then the time of relevant work will be explored, and finally her connections and legacy. Conclusions to how she fits or does not fit into Gardner's model will be made at the end. Now lets turn to the life of one of the most extraordinary woman of the Modern Era.
Bronislawa Boguska Sklodowska had a heart with insurmountable love, and was willing to sacrifice all for her family and God. A gifted pianist with a moderate voice, she had become the principle of the Freta Street School. She married Wladislaw at age twenty-four. He was a physics and mathematics teacher, as well as, the director of a boys' gymnasium: "His life was ruled by his passion for learning and for teaching (Quinn, 24)." The two cared for their children deeply and supported all their efforts. With both being educators, it was important to them to instill a thirst for knowledge in their children. Wladislaw spoke Polish, Russian, French, German, Greek, and Latin; therefore, he was able to read every evening to the children form a wide variety of books: "Even games, in this household, tended to be educational (Quinn, 27)." Another nightly occurrence at the Sklodowskas' was the physical exercise routine they all did to stay fit. In this household, health was not to be taken for granted because Bronislawa had tuberculosis and diseases were common.
On a bitter day in January of 1876, Sofia caught fever and died at the age of thirteen. Bronislawa went to Austria and then France to "take the cure" for her tuberculosis. Nothing could be done though, and she slowly started to wither away. Marya developed a hatred for sicknesses because they were taking so much from the family. Bronislawa tried her best to fight the infectious disease and be there for her children, but she too died. The eleven-year-old Marya took these two untimely deaths very hard. Her faith was shaken and "she felt anger against a pitiless and unjust God (Pflaum, 9)," but her love for her mother was timeless. Although gone early in her life, Marya remembered her mother's hard work ethic, advanced ideas about the role of women, and the love she had for her.
Wladislaw saw his youngest daughter's talents and enrolled her in school ahead of schedule. Ironically, schools were not a place for little children. The Russians kept a firm grip on the educational system making sure that no materials, like Polish history, would be taught. The Yzar had agents come and go from the school to check on the students and teachers. The gymnasium, or school, was like a prison with the terrifying guards being these agents. Thinking back, Marie Curie had said that the teachers were "hostile to the Polish nation" and "treated their pupils as enemies." The materials taught were "of questionable value, and the moral atmosphere was altogether unbearable." She sums up her beginning education with the comment, "this period of my early youth, darkened... by mourning and the sorrow of oppression." This impressionable time matured Marya into a strong Polish nationalist.
However, the suppressive regime could not stop Marya from learning. Her unusual intelligence was obvious to everyone. Teachers were amazed at the child's powerful memory and capacity to absorb and understand large amounts of information. One day "her classmates accused her of cheating when she flawlessly recited a poem they had read together in class only twice before (Pflaum, 9)." She was at least two years ahead of all other students which caused them to be envious of her talents. This may of been the stem to her unwillingness to push herself forward into people's attention. Mildly reserved, she constantly searched for answers and knowledge while always working hard and seriously. The work paid off since at the age of sixteen she graduated at the top of her class receiving many other awards. Marya now wanted to continue her studies and pursue a diploma so that she may teach.
Marya knew that attending Warsaw University was out of the question since it did not admit woman. Her family could not spare the money to send her to another country for schooling, plus Bronya desired to become a doctor. Without money no one could go to school abroad, so the two sisters decided to join the highly illegal "The Floating University". Patriotism, intellectual endeavors, and humanitarianism were the goals of this establishment which secretly taught many Polish intellects at night: "To participate required courage. Since it was a Polish school, operating outside the Russian system, both teachers and students were subject to prison terms or possible deportation to Siberia if the authorities learned of their activities (Pflaum, 12)." The school sparked an undying fire in both woman for their country and for the need to go abroad and study at an established university. How could this be done though? Marya came up with the plan that Bronya would go to Paris and study while she would work as a tutor and send her sister the money needed. Then Marya could go to Paris to study with the help of Bronya who would already be done at the university. All that was required was for Marya to find a good paying job.
Marya found a job, but she had to move out into the countryside where the region was rich with sugar beet production. A Mr. Zorawski was the administrator of about two hundred acres, and had two children who needed to be home taught. The delightful family welcomed Marya to their home. Marya found time to also teach the children of the people who worked in the nearby sugar beet factory: "As the days quickly settled into an undisturbed routine, Marya chronicled her life at [the Zorawski's] in a series of letters to family and friends (Pflaum, 16)." Soon the winter snows started to recede, and the Zorawski's oldest son, who was at college, came home for the summer. This was the start of friction between the Zorawski parents and Marya because the handsome young son and Marya fell in love. Marriage was even talked about, but the parents would not have their son tied down to a woman with no money. Thus, the son was forced to forget these thoughts and go back to school. For a young woman like Marya, this first experience with love was crushing. She wrote to her cousin, "say farewell to this base world... Some... pretend that... I am obliged to pass through the kind of fever called love." Marya considered leaving the family altogether; however, a year was left on her contract and she needed the money. After the tutoring of the children was finished, she left to go home again. She never forgot the Zorawski son, but she knew that in the midst of sadness one must press on.
Paris was a whole new world of technology and freedoms. One could study anything in France, and no restrictions were placed on what could or could not be read. The city of romance and intrigue had been known to make people forget their cares and goals, for a life of sublime existence. The city had no mystical power over the young open eyed lady from the east though:
Marya's character and opinions were already firmly established, tempered by conditions of life in Tzarist Poland. Yet, that crucible had left unscathed the two traits it was most designed to obliterate-- Marya's ambition and her independence (Pflaum, 22).
The year was 1890 when Marya arrived in Paris. The streets were bustling with sounds and foreign images. Electric lamps were being placed along the great streets that contained various three and four wheeled automobiles. The long wait had come to an end, she was finally here and ready to face the rigors of intense study.
Money was tight so she could only afford a small place. This obstacle seemed insignificant compared to the others. She was in a new land being taught in a foreign tongue, and competing with students that had more experience. Marya only left the library when it closed at ten. Physics, calculus, and chemistry were her areas of focus. The constraints of school and the pressures of this different existence might have caused her to become "exhausted," but "interestingly enough, during this period of a marginal existence Marie never once complained of her "nervous problems" (Pflaum, 30)." In July of 1893 she received her licence es sciences physiques, roughly a masters degree, as "Marie" Sklodowska. Amazingly enough she finished as the top student, and was the first woman to pass the test and receive this degree. Her outstanding performance earned her a Polish scholarship, which allowed her to pursue a degree in mathematics. The following year she graduated second in her class. Yet, more importantly she was invited to work at the School of Physics and Chemistry of the City of Paris under chief Pierre Curie.
The two were kindred sprits. Both liked excursions to the country, and had the same drive to discover the world of science and the rules that govern it. They lived quiet happy lives in a small apartment in Paris where they resumed their work: "They were now so close in all they did that they even learned to think together (Birch, 26)." Pierre was an immense source of knowledge for Marie. His work on magnetism was widely known, and he now researched crystals. Marie had her first child, Irene, in September of their third year of marriage. Marie then decided to look for an appropriate topic for her doctorate: "At the time she began this undertaking, no woman anywhere in the world had yet been awarded a doctorate in science... (Pasachoff, 35)." What she decided to investigate changed the world of science forever.
The French scientist Henri Becquerel was fascinated like everyone else with these X-rays. His great discovery was that the metal uranium did not need to be energized by light to give off this radiation. The meaning of his discovery interested Marie Curie very much because what Becquerel found was a substance which spontaneously emitted radiation. On December 16, 1897 Marie and her partner/husband, Pierre, began their investigation into this phenomenon.
Marie first tried to measure the strength of these mysterious rays that uranium ejected. Pierre had the gift of creating sensitive instruments, and what he made with the help of his brother was the electrometer. This device could measure the electrical currents in air, even if they were extremely minute. This was important because Becquerel showed that radiation produces electric currents. So, radiation could be measured by taking readings of the current in air. Marie tested a plethora of samples, but the only important factor was the amount of uranium in each. She now wondered if any other elements had the ability to produce radiation: "Curiosity, a marvelous feminine curiosity, the first virtue of a scientist, was developed in Marie to the highest degree (Curie, 156)." Her intuition guided her to the idea of testing pitchblende. The metal was the site where uranium had been first retrieved. The heavy black object sat on the cool top of a lab table just waiting to reveal its secretes to Madame Curie. On February 17, 1898, Marie observed something she never expected-- the metal actually emitted more radiation, or was more active, than uranium itself.
The Curies were still at a loss because pitchblende was a conglomerate of several elements, so they had to isolate the source which was releasing more radiation than uranium. A chemist named Gustave Bemont helped them achieve this. The newly discovered element was named polonium after Marie's country of birth that she loved so much. Shortly following the find of polonium, the element radium was also discovered by the Curies. This revelation soon would become their trade mark, and Marie "The Radium Woman" began to rise in fame. The two scientists were inebriated not by their growing notoriety but by the successive properties of radium which they found. These years were spent in a tiny shack of a lab trying to reveal more about the element, and turned out to be the happiest moments in the couples lives: "It was a time of youth, of struggle, and of discovery, and she would always remember that "miserable old shed" as the site of "such happy work days, despite their attendant difficulties" (Pasachoff, 49)."
The colleagues had definitely been astonished by the discovery of these new radioactive metals; however, the unique properties of polonium and radium upset fundamental theories on the composition of matter. Dalton had long before already put forth the idea of atoms. These were presently considered to be the smallest building blocks of matter: "In 1900 Marie had the idea that radioactivity was not caused by something acting on a substance from outside it, but by something going on inside the substance's atoms (Birch, 42)." Her thinking then hinted at some type of smaller particle or particles within the atom itself. She never aspired to find these tiny particles, yet other scientist, such as J.J. Thomson, vigorously endeavored to map out the atom. What an exciting time in science this must of been! Pierre made a big contribution to the inner workings of matter when he realized that there were two types of rays being emitted by radium. It would not be long till the atom and all its hidden power was able to be comprehended. Science had been changed for ever.
When the Curies and Henri Becquerel were jointly given the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, everyone wanted to hear form them. The quiet couple disliked the commotion of reporters and mobs of people, but to share their knowledge was a tremendous desire because so much could be found with cooperative efforts. Their marriage was a testimony of that. Pierre addressed the public at the Nobel lecture saying:
It might even be thought that radium could become very dangerous in criminal hands, and here the question can be raised whether mankind benefits from knowing the secrets of Nature, whether it is ready to profit from it or whether this knowledge will not be harmful for it... I am one of those who believe with Nobel that mankind will derive more good than harm from the new discoveries (Birch, 45).
Much good did come form the discoveries, and they were finding other plausible uses for radioactive substances. Pierre in conjunction with French doctors revealed its medicinal purposes in treating cancer. What they did not see was the underlying effects that build up over long periods of exposure.
Marie and Pierre had spent countless hours in the lab handling radium, now known to be highly toxic, and it took its toll on their bodies. Burns were visible reminders of the power radium possessed. Marie lost nearly twenty pounds, but amazingly she still had considerable strength-- maybe all those years of childhood exercise with her family paid off. However, Pierre was not as fortunate. The radiation had drained every morsel of his strength to where he required assistance for the simple activities such as getting dressed. A weakened Pierre was unable to avoided a rapidly approaching horse-drawn wagon when crossing the street. The wheel of the wagon ran over his head and crushed his skull; he died immediately. That April 19, 1906 day was one of Marie's saddest memories:
I enter the room. Someone says: "He is dead." Can one comprehend such words? Pierre is dead, he who I had seen leave looking fine this morning, he who I expected to press in my arms this evening. I will only see him dead and it's over forever. I repeat your name again and always "Pierre, Pierre, my Pierre," alas that doesn't make him come back, he is gone forever, leaving me nothing but desolation and despair (Quinn, 231).
Marie was now left with her two little girls Irene and Eve. Although distraught over Pierre's sudden departure, she characteristically did not give into her depression. She persistently proceeded with her and Pierre's work while thinking of him often. Her partner in science and in love was now gone.
Marie's next contribution displayed her patriotism and humanitarian efforts that were fostered since she was a child in Yzarist Poland. The First World War broke out, and she instinctually wanted to help. Irene was grown up now and was right by her mother's side. The two knew that X-ray machines were scarce, so they made mobile machines to be taken to the soldiers. Marie traveled all over Paris trying to get supplies and money. While teaching in Paris, she made the trip to the 400 hospitals at the French and Belgian front. The Curies were a great attribute to the doctors during this horrible time.
After the war, Marie made a sacrifice for the good of research. She was still the same person who in elementary school did not like to push herself into the spotlight. Money was sparse however, so she reluctantly agreed to take a fund-raising tour of the United States. America greeted her with an intense interest and warmth. The tour was forced to be cut short due to Madame Curie's ailing health which caused her to collapse. The excursion was a success even though she returned home before completing all the scheduled events. This was the beginning of Marie's downward fight against the compiled effects of radiation.
Irene had followed in her parents footsteps. She was now a serious scientist, and her mother watched and gave advice to the dedicated daughter. Irene would make many discoveries, and Marie was proud of every one. In May 1934, Marie became seriously ill and was forced to leave the lab. The sickness had robbed her of all strength, so for two months she lied in bed. Then on July 4, 1934, at age 66, Marie Curie died. The life of a woman who loved humanity and made countless contributions was at an end. No woman had, or has, ever made such an impact on the male dominated world of science.
Marie Curie's life is a shinning example to all scientist. Her humanitarian efforts saved thousands of lives in the First World War. Danger was never a draw back for her because her curiosity and need to help was immense. Her independence and stubbornness was just as magnificent as her curiosity. She refused to be shut out off a male world. Marie was the first woman in Europe to earn a Ph.D. in science and the first to win a Nobel Prize. Her goal in life was to be enlightened and to enlighten.
Madame Curie's connections ranged throughout the science community because she was willing to share ideas for the furtherance of her field. She did not aspire for riches or fame, but to help others. Albert Einstein was a friend to Marie, and said that she was always "a servant of society." Her openness was a welcoming attribute that enticed many of the best thinkers of the day to her. Seeing the benefits of communication with people such as Rutherford and Einstein, she continually attended and encouraged meetings between scientist. Marie Curie was missed by many when she died because not only was an exalted intellect lost, but a great soul as well.
April 20, 1995: Marie Curie was reburied in the Pantheon, France's national mausoleum, becoming the fist woman accorded that honor on her own merit (Pasachoff, 105).
Marie Curie's humble beginnings places her in "a locale somewhat removed from the actual centers of power and influence of her society, but not so far away that she and her family are entirely ignorant of what is going on elsewhere (Gardner, 360)." Indeed, she is not ignorant and desires to know what is going on around her. Her patriotism exemplifies her craving for knowledge of the circumstances in which she lives. The home environment is "more correct that it is warm" because her mother can not show affection due to her infectious illness. Closeness with her parents transpires despite the disease. Bronya becomes her intimate friend and moral support. This is also where a noticeable discrepancy arises with Gardner's model. The Sklodowska family is highly intelligent and educated. Marie's strengths are fostered in this atmosphere and revealed at a very young age. She reads textbooks at the age of five even though the meanings are not yet clear. Religion is important to her mother, but soon dies out of her heart: "The creator often passes through a period of religiosity that is rejected... (Gardner, 361)."
Marie differs from Gardner's model again when it comes to the adolescent years. She is not near the forefront of her domain as early as the other creators. This has nothing to do with her creativity, but stems more from the fact that she must put her education on hold till the money is available. Consequently, she is within the confines of the model. Once the money is there, she lunges toward the marginal existence of Paris and is back on schedule. The metropolis supplies a vast resource of intellects with common interest and goals. Quickly, Marie submerges herself in her domain allowing work to be her essence. She discovers an area of special interest while preparing for her doctoral thesis-- X-rays. Only Pierre her husband and partner sees her because she focuses on her experiments with radiation. He is a friend and a supporter during this time. This support is probably what kept Marie from falling into her states of "exhaustion." Finally, she make the breakthrough of radium.
The Faustian bargain is not as clear as some of the other creators' sacrifices. Marie and Pierre's bargain is their sanctuary from the public eye. Both are quiet people who give up their intimacy to expand the work of radium. Marie even goes on a country-wide tour of America. Also, another sacrifice that is quite evident is their health. Pierre would place this toxic substance directly on his skin. The understanding of the dangerous radiation is not known till later, but the two did know the burns that result from touching radium. Nothing is too much to endure for the progress of science.
A second breakthrough is emanate and with it Marie receives another Nobel Prize. Contributions continue till she becomes too weak from radiation. The part of Gardner's model where the creator exploits others for rejuvenation purposes is a stretch for Marie Curie; however, she does feel revitalized when she sees the success of her daughter Irene. She never becomes a critic or commentator, but does switch interest to forming schools. In the end Marie dies at a tender age of 66, leaving behind many followers and creative works.
Therefore, this portrait of Madame Curie's life is very consistent with the model of creativity put forth by Howard Gardner. Commonalties that seem to be indicative of people who tend to revolutionize or add to a domain are: have a desire/need to know how things operate, question the established, marginal, gravitate to communities of intellects, Faustian bargain, and never give up. Marie Curie lead a life that is considered one of the most creative, and hopefully these ideals can contribute to someone else's becoming a Creating Mind.
Curie, Eve. Madame Curie. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1937.
Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds. New York: BasicBooks, 1993.
Pasachoff, Naomi. Marie Curie. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Pflaum, Rosalynd. Grand Obsession: Madame Curie and Her World. New York: Doubleday, 1989.
Quinn, Susan. Marie Curie. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995.