Charles Darwin
EDP 380, FALL, 1997
DAN GROME
INTRODUCTION
Second semester of my freshman year here at Miami University,
I took the Honors section of Botany 180 with Professor Carl
Mattox. The class dealt primarily with the evolution of man
and the study of evolution throughout history. A few of the
many names we encountered in the course were Mendel, Huxley,
Lyell, and Darwin. However, Charles Darwin and his theories
were the primary focus of our discussions. This is when I
was first exposed in-depth to Darwinism. The ideas we
studied and the concepts we explored laid the foundation for
my thinking on the whole subject of evolution and how man
ìcame to be.î Major points about Darwin that impressed me
the most were his devotion to the study of his environment,
the depth of his writings, and the influence he had on his
peers and consequently, the whole scientific world.
Furthermore, I was impressed at the fact that over one
hundred years after his death, his theories still lay the
foundation for scientific thought and evolutionary
exploration.
The second Honors class I have taken at Miami is EDP 380,
Creative Frames of Mind. When Professor Sherman first asked
for ìother intelligencesî when we mapped our own strengths
and weaknesses in Gardnerís seven intelligences, my idea was
environmental intelligence. Darwin immediately came to my
mind for this ìotherî intelligence, but also for the logical
intelligence. My freshman class in evolution explored
Darwinís theories, but we only skirted along the subject of
his personal life and the depth of his creative intelligence.
Does Charles Darwin fit Gardnerís model of intelligence?
Does Darwin display an eighth intelligence, perhaps
overlooked by Gardner?
To explore Darwinís place in the model, Gardnerís criteria
must be followed. First, does Darwin display individual
talent in his geological and biological domains? To discover
the answer to this question, I will explore Darwinís early
life to find his affinity for studying plants and animals and
whether he actually possessed skill in his observational work
on his journey. Second, does Darwinís work affect his domain
within which he operates? I will look at how Darwin
mastered, labored in, and ultimately revised his domain. I
will also explore Darwinís research that resulted from his
journeys to various islands and continents in the Western
Hemisphere. Third, does Darwin affect his wider field of the
natural sciences? I will look at how Darwin was influenced
by his teachers and peers, and in turn, how he influenced
them. I will further examine this question in light of his
writings and the impact he had on refashioning his domain.
Through research in these key areas, I will determine whether
Darwin fits Gardnerís model of a creative intelligence and in
which intelligences Darwin shows the most creativity.
THE STORY OF CHARLES DARWIN:
A BACKGROUND TO CREATIVITY.
Charles Robert Darwin was born, the son of Robert and
Susannah Darwin, on
February 12, 1809. His grandfather was Erasmus Darwin ñ a
poet, philosopher, and a naturalist who had written two
books, The Botanic Garden and Zoonomia, recording his
scientific views. From his birth, Charles had the zeal for
nature of his grandfather in his blood. His father, Robert,
influenced him in a much more tangible way. Although Charles
refers to him as ìthe kindest main I ever knew,î his father
was very harsh and demanding that young Charles pursue a life
of medicine (Huxley, 7). Charles was the second youngest of
six children and not prone to follow his fatherís
instructions. His mother, who had a hobby of raising
pigeons, died when he was eight. The naturalist interests of
Erasmus Darwin, the discipline of Robert Darwin, and the
absence of Susannah Darwin influenced Darwin in his early
life.
After his mother died, Charles entered Shrewsbury boarding
school under Dr. Butler where he was uninspired and bored.
He remarked in retrospect, ìNothing could have been worse for
the development of my mind than Dr. Butlerís school, as it
was strictly classical, nothing else being taught except a
little ancient geography and historyî (Huxley, 10). However,
Darwin was an energetic young man and made use of his free
time by collecting various small trinkets and whatnot from
nature. He later reflected on this hobby: ìThe passion for
collectingÖwas clearly innate, as none of my sisters or
brother ever had the tasteî (Huxley, 8). Charles also read
extensively which later inspired him to travel, and piqued
his interest in the sciences and bird watching.
Charles succumbed to his fatherís wishes and left the
boarding school at age sixteen to study medicine at Edinburgh
University. Once again, Darwin found pleasures doing things
other than his studies. Instead of witnessing gruesome
surgeries, Charles found it much more interesting to attend
lectures on geology, learn how to stuff birds and animals,
and visit his Uncle Josiah Wedgwood in the rural area
surrounding Shrewsbury.
After two years of slacking off in his studies, his father
enrolled him in Christís College, Cambridge to become a
clergyman. Once again, Charlesí life was reoriented, and he
was thrown into something he did not have the heart to do.
To pass the time in Cambridge, Darwin took up shooting and
sporting. As he reflects on his education at Christís
College, ìDuring the three years which I spent at Cambridge
my time there was wasted as far as the academic studies were
concerned as completely as at Edinburgh and at schoolî
(Huxley, 15). Despite his lack of interest, he did pass his
courses at Christís College, without Honors.
The significance of Darwinís education up until the age of
twenty-two, lies in how he spent his time and energy.
Throughout his school career, Charles enjoyed the outdoors ñ
whether it was collecting minerals and insects or watching
birds or shooting and stuffing wildlife. He was not content
to attend boring lectures, but he was enthusiastic about
being out ìin the fieldî where he could study geology and
biology as it was happening. In an answer to a questionnaire
concerning scientific men of the day, Darwin wrote, ìI
consider that all I have learnt of any value has been
self-taughtî (Gruber, 73).
Further significance of Darwinís schooling lies in the
professors and esteemed scientists he met. His hands-on
interest in the natural sciences and his personable character
made him many solid connections with his teachers. The first
evolutionist Darwin came into contact with during his
education at Edinburgh was Robert Grant who discussed
Darwinís early observations and encouraged the young
scientist in his early years. Reverend John Henslow,
Darwinís ìfather in Natural Historyî was the greatest
influence on the young Darwin (Gruber, 84). He urged Charles
to pursue his interest in geology and held open house each
week to bring students such as Darwin and professors together
to discuss scientific views on natural history. During
Darwinís travels, he sent specimens back to Henslow and upon
his return utilized Henslow to help him sort and process all
the material he had sent back. Henslow also introduced
Darwin to Professor Adam Sedgwick. Darwinís earliest
geological training came from Sedgwick, whom he accompanied
on a short excursion through Wales (Gruber, 77). However,
Sedgwick proved to be Darwinís biggest rival on the views of
evolution after later research. Another key influence was
Charles Lyell ñ one of the greatest geologists of the
nineteenth century. Darwin was first introduced to Lyell
when Henslow gave him The Principles of Geology. It set the
groundwork for Darwinís own research on the transmutation of
species. Lyell is most frequently cited author in Darwinís
notebooks and early manuscripts, being quoted 42 times
(Manier, 18). Furthermore, Lyell and Darwin were in
ìcontinuing conversation concerning on-going researchî
(Manier, 23).
DARWIN'S JOURNEY
Darwinís drive to travel was first spurred by Alexander von
Humboldtís Personal Narrative. Upon reading it, Charles
immediately set forth plans to travel and study. He prepared
for all contingencies and began learning Spanish. On August
24, 1831, Henslow notified him of Captain Robert FitzRoyís
opening for a naturalist aboard The HMS Beagle. Darwin was
very excited to be travelling, and in a letter to Capt.
FitzRoy wrote, ìMy second life will then commence and it
shall be as a birthday for the rest of my lifeî (Huxley, 19).
Darwinís travels on the Beagle provided him the means to
collect his evolutionary data and the facts to form his
theories on the variations of species.
Once again, despite his fatherís objections, Charles accepted
Henslowís advice to travel aboard the Beagle with enthusiasm
and high hopes. Josiah, Charlesí uncle, referred to Charles
as ìa man of enlarged curiosityî (Brent, 111). Accompanying
this curiosity was Darwinís outstanding field experience.
These two components piqued Darwinís excitement and further
discussions with Capt. FitzRoy only excited him more. After
four months of anticipation, the Beagle departed from
Plymouth on December 27, 1831 for a five-year journey to the
Pacific coast of South America.
The actual journey upon the high seas was barely tolerable
for Darwin. Waves of sickness came with every rock of the
boat, and he tried to exist on a feeble diet of biscuits and
raisins. Furthermore, Capt. FitzRoyís temper flared at will,
and the shipmates talked sea-slang gibberish. When at last,
they were in view of Tenerife, Darwin was further
disconcerted: ìOh! Misery, misery, we were just preparing to
drop anchor within half a mile of Santa Cruz when a boat came
alongside, bringing with it our death-warrant. The Consul
declared we must perform a rigorous quarantine of twelve
daysî (Brent, 136). Instead of waiting it out, FitzRoy
decided to sail on to the Cape Verde Islands. On the way,
Darwin collected his first marine specimens ñ plankton. When
the ship finally dropped anchor, Darwin rejoiced at the
beauty of nature he encountered, writing, ìÖit has been for
me a glorious day, like giving to a blind man eyes, he is
overwhelmed with what he sees and cannot easily comprehend
itî (Huxley, 24).
From the Cape Verde Islands, the Beagle sailed on to South
America, and on February 28, 1832, Darwin landed in the
tropical climate of Brazil. Darwin collected numerous
species of insects, spiders, rocks and flowers in the area
surrounding Rio do Janeiro, sending as many home as he could
whenever the opportunity presented itself. Besides his
dedication to collecting at this time, Darwin also wrote
countless journal entries and letters to Henslow describing
every geographical detail he observed. The Beagle continued
to sail around the coast of South America, and each landing
brought more excitement and valuable information to Darwin.
The Beagle sailed to Montevideo, Buenos Aires, Bahia, and
Tierra del Fuego, and Darwin continued to collect specimens
of birds, animals, and fossils. His collections led him to
discover differences between species and similar
characteristics that prevailed in those different species.
By the summer of 1833, Darwin seems to be deeply questioning
the Creationism that he was brought up with in favor of a
more geological explanation. Darwinís turning point in his
research occurred during his research in the Galapagos
Islands. His first crucial information came when he studied
the tortoises from the different Galapagos Islands. They
were very peculiar in respect to each other because although
they were all the same tortoise classification living in the
same climate on separate islands within sight of each other,
they were strangely different. Varieties of mockingbirds
also inhabited the islands, and these observations led Darwin
to his study of the finches. Similar finches populated each
island, but on each island, the finches had exploited
different biological advantages. For example, the beaks of
the finches were all different. He pondered why these
finches were not identically the same on each island. In
foreshadowing of his later theory, Darwin wrote that these
observations ìundermine the stability of speciesî (Huxley,
44). It would be from these observations in the Galapagos
that Darwin would eventually form his ideas for the
transmutation of species and evolution by natural selection.
As the Beagle headed for Australia, Henslow was busy doing
his job as well, organizing the specimens Darwin sent home
and spreading the information of his discoveries. After
Darwinís thankful return to England on October 2, 1836
(ìThere was never a ship so full of homesick heroes as the
ëBeagleíî (Clark, 409)), he was happily reunited with his
family and colleagues. In his absence, he had built up quite
a reputation with geologists and naturalists of the time, and
he was known without question as the man who made
astoundingly precise and extensive observations of fauna and
flora in the Galapagos. Now that Darwin had returned, he
could set his mind to forming his theories with the data he
had collected and sharing his ideas with the rest of the
world.
THE WRITINGS
Darwinís first published works after his voyage were his
letters to home and to colleagues during the voyage of the
Beagle. These were published as The Correspondence of
Charles Darwin. A further publication from the voyage was
the Journal of Researches into Geology and Natural History of
the Various Countries Visited by H.M.S. Beagle in 1839.
Three books published concerning his geological studies were
Coral Reefs in 1842, Volcanic Islands in 1844, and Geological
Observations on South America in 1846.
In March of 1837, Darwinís speculations favoring evolution
over Creationism were substantiated by John Gould, a
taxidermist and leading ornithologist who identified three
separate species of mockingbird and thirteen species of
finches from Darwinís collection in the Galapagos. In July
of 1837, Darwin started a series of notebooks entitled The
Transmutation of Species, which led to his formulation of the
theory of evolution by natural selection fifteen months
later.
Charles Darwin married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood on January
29, 1839, and she stood by his side, taking care of him and
his children in his ill health. She even took care of his
writings, promising to publish his controversial theories in
the case of his unfortunate death. In 1842, Darwin started
writing his first sketch of the Origin of Species based on
the variability of species he found in organisms such as
finches and barnacles. In 1844, that sketch was developed
into an essay, and in 1859, Darwin published the complete
book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
with great reluctance. In 1870, he published Descent of Man
which stated that man was a mere product on a certain level
of evolution, not a creation in himself. The reaction to
these literary works was pandemonium. Imagine yourself in
the Victorian era with the Church as the focal point for
everything in the natural world. Now, Darwin comes along and
specifically writes out what some anti-Church scientists have
been talking about for the past decade. Evolution, not
Creation by God explains the existence of man? Blasphemy!
Darwinís theories were not fully accepted until after his
death, and in 1860, Thomas Henry Huxley, who eventually
became known as Darwinís bulldog (Arrrrrr!) defended Darwinís
ideas in front of the Bishop of Oxford (www.nobunga).
Charles Darwin died on April 19, 1882 and is buried in
Westminster Abby next to Sir Isaac Newton.
CONCLUSION
Does Charles Darwin fit into Gardnerís model of creativity?
If he does, what creative intelligences does he demonstrate?
First, does Darwin display individual talent in his domain?
As seen from the early age of nine, Charles was extremely
interested in observing nature and pursuing studies in
geology and natural history. Even though his school studies
did not interest him, Charles had no qualms with
concentrating and dedicating himself to the study of nature
in the field. This commitment to research is also seen on
his voyage aboard the Beagle where he devoted his life to the
study of plants, animals, and rocks despite sickness and a
temperamental crew. Darwinís skill for his work is seen in
the reputation he earned from his collections and the
thoroughness of his work. His skill in understanding the
logical workings of nature is apparent in the culmination of
his work ñ The Origin of Species.
Does Darwin affect his domain within which he operates?
Darwin first mastered his domain under the mentors of Henslow
and Sedgwick. He then labored in his domain for five years
while traveling on the Beagle. Darwinís collection of
species is so rare and extensive that his colleagues such as
Henslow, Huxley, and later Gould could not help but be
impressed. His research revised his domain and gave factual
proof to theories that scientists of the day had been
formulating. His data supported the notion that evolution,
not God, was the reason for manís existence. The geological
and biological sciences were turned in the right direction
through Darwinís research, and his ideas lay the foundation
for the natural sciences today.
Does Darwin affect his wider field? A scientific revolution
was in effect the minute Darwin recorded the variations in
the Galapagos Islands and sent the specimens back to England
to be studied and interpreted. Factual proof for
evolutionary theory was at last in the scientistsí hands.
The Church was disrupted. The people rioted. Future
generations of man along the evolutionary chain have been
affected by this one manís zeal for the outdoors and the
natural sciences. His relationships with eminent scientists
and his development as an energetic naturalist produced
observations that refashioned the religion-centered view of
manís existence into a view supporting evolution.
Yes, Darwin fits Gardnerís model of Creative Intelligences.
Darwinís strongest intelligence seems to be the logical
because of his classifications of plants and animals and his
extreme interest in the natural sciences. However, to attain
the esteem that he did, Darwin had to utilize other
intelligences as well. For example, he used his
interpersonal intelligence to secure connections in the
scientific fields and maintain meaningful relationships with
his colleagues. He also made use of his intrapersonal
intelligence through his devotion to his work despite
criticisms from his father and the Church. In addition, he
had to be able to observe nature by himself and reflect on
what he saw in order to realize the truth that was hidden all
around him. The linguistic intelligence was very strong with
Darwin, as seen through his many writings, journals, and
finally his book. Furthermore, he utilized his kinesthetic
intelligence to a certain extent, but only as far as he was a
traveler and persevered through physical sickness. He also
made use of his spatial intelligence in his observations of
the natural world around him. However, this leads to a more
specific, eighth, intelligence ñ environmental intelligence.
Darwin was very ìin touchî with the environment and what was
going on in it. He easily observed minor differences in
various species and interpreted these differences to be the
result of evolution. This intelligence in itself is quite a
creative accomplishment.
Darwin journeyed, and he searched through trial and error for
an understanding of the order of nature. His creativity and
willingness to rise above the scientific views of his day
made his journey all the more worthwhile.
WORKS CITED
Brent, Peter. Charles Darwin. Harper & Row, Publishers: New
York, 1981.
Clark, Ronald W. The Survival of Charles Darwin. Random
House: New York, 1984.
Gruber, Howard E. Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of
Scientific Creativity. The University of Chicago Press:
Chicago, 1974.
Huxley, Julian. Charles Darwin and His World. The Viking
Press: New York, 1965.
Manier, Edward. The Young Darwin and His Cultural Circle.
D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1965.
http://www.lib.virginia.edu/science/parshall/darwin.html
http://www.nobunaga.domon.co.uk/htm/darwin.htm